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The Misappropriation of Jihad: Understanding the 9/11 Attacks, True Islamic Teachings, and the Impact of Educational Failures

Jihad as Motivation for the 9/11 Attacks

The September 11, 2001 attacks were carried out by 19 hijackers of the Islamist militant organization al-Qaeda under the banner of jihad. In the 1990s, al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden declared a militant jihad against the United States and issued fatawa (religious decrees) in 1996 and 1998, sharply criticizing American government financial contributions to the Saudi royal family and American military intervention in the Arab world. The attacks were driven by bin Laden, who had formed al-Qaeda after participating in the fight against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan during the 1980s. Following the Soviet defeat, bin Laden and others established al-Qaeda with the purpose of mobilizing jihads elsewhere around the world. By September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda had built an organization capable of planning and executing large-scale operations, with leaders able to approve major operations, a personnel recruitment and training system, communications infrastructure, intelligence gathering capabilities, and the ability to move people and finance attacks.

Bin Laden and his followers justified the attacks by citing multiple grievances against the United States and its allies. These motivations were published in bin Laden's November 2002 "Letter to the American people," which claimed the attacks were in response to Western support for attacking Muslims in Somalia, Russian atrocities against Muslims in Chechnya, Indian oppression in Kashmir, the American presence in Saudi Arabia, US support of Israel, and sanctions against Iraq. Bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri specifically asserted that Israeli repression of Palestinians during the Second Intifada was the immediate cause that forced al-Qaeda to launch the September 11 attacks. The eruption of the al-Aqsa intifada in Palestine in 2000 became a powerful inspiration for bin Laden to launch the raids of September 11.

The True Meaning of Jihad in Islamic Texts

Despite how jihad was invoked by the 9/11 attackers, the term has a much broader and more nuanced meaning in Islamic teachings. The Arabic word "jihad" is properly defined as "struggle" or "striving" and is generally described as taking place at two levels: the inner (or greater) and the outer (or lesser). According to the hadith (records of the sayings and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad), inner jihad is the struggle within oneself to avoid sinful behavior and live according to the principles of the Qurʾan, Sunna, and Sharia. This internal, spiritual struggle against the lower self is referred to as the "greater jihad" (al-jihad al-akbar).

In the Qurʾān, jihad is a term with multiple meanings. During the Meccan period (c. 610–622 CE), the emphasis was on the internal dimension of jihad, termed ṣabr, which refers to the practice of "patient forbearance" by Muslims in the face of life's vicissitudes and toward those who wish them harm. The Qurʾān also speaks of carrying out jihad by means of the Qurʾān against those who reject the message of Islam, implying a verbal and discursive struggle. It is only in the later Medinan period (622–632) that a new dimension of jihad emerged: fighting in self-defense against the aggression of persecutors, termed qitāl.

A well-known Hadith refers to four primary ways in which jihad can be carried out: by the heart, the tongue, the hand (physical action short of armed combat), and the sword. Many modern Muslim authors recognize only wars fought for territorial defense and religious freedom as legitimate forms of jihad. The internal jihad or greater jihad refers to the efforts of a believer to live their Muslim faith as well as possible, following the rules of the faith, being devoted to Allah, and doing everything they can to help other people. For most religious people, living God's way is quite a struggle, as God sets high standards, and believers have to fight with their own selfish desires to live up to them.

Misinterpretation and Manipulation of Jihad

The concept of jihad has been subject to significant misinterpretation, particularly by extremist groups that emphasize its military aspects while downplaying its spiritual dimensions. In the twentieth century, the notion of jihad lost much of its jurisprudential relevance and instead gave rise to ideological and political discourse. While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, some Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical texts.

Jihadist terrorist organizations place a much larger emphasis on the lesser jihad (external war) than the greater jihad (internal spiritual struggle). These groups use the Quran and hadith corpus to make arguments for violent actions, though they typically focus more on Quranic scriptures than the hadith corpus as the Quran is easier to access, shorter, and less complex. Recruiters for these organizations will often target rejected, disowned, or misfit individuals, and persuade them that they need redemption for their sins and that paradise through jihad is worth the cost of their life. The recruiter may also work with an imam to corroborate the scriptural component, preying on vulnerable individuals.

This manipulation is particularly effective in certain contexts because istishadi (martyrdom) is portrayed as a guaranteed way to gain entrance to paradise. According to extremist interpretations, someone who dies as a martyr while fighting for jihad will have their sins forgiven and be granted immediate entry to paradise. In contrast, the traditional Islamic concept of tawba (repentance), which requires six specific elements including remorse, desire not to repeat the sin, undertaking religious duties, asking forgiveness from those wronged, and being obedient to Allah, is seen as more difficult and less certain. It is a matter of debate among Islamic scholars whether Allah will accept tawba and forgive sins.

The Role of Educational Deficits in Radicalization

The lack of quality education plays a significant role in making individuals vulnerable to extremist ideologies. When educational systems are weak or absent, extremist ideology can spread unchecked, and young men often lack access to comprehensive educational resources that would help them understand the true tenets of their faith and the diversity of Islamic teachings. Instead, they may be exposed to radical interpretations that frame jihad strictly as violent confrontation.

Different translations of the Quran can present vastly different interpretations of the same passages, further contributing to confusion and potential radicalization. Some translations portray Islam as less warlike, others emphasize its warrior aspects, and the most violent portrayals are often used by recruiters to propagandize religious texts for their purposes. These differences exemplify the problems of radicalism that plague certain interpretations of Islam.

In the context of educational failures, it's worth noting that research has shown that individuals who become radicalized are not necessarily uneducated in the formal sense. However, they may lack specific education about their religion's teachings and critical thinking skills that would allow them to evaluate extremist claims. Educational deficits make communities susceptible to extremist influences, perpetuating a cycle where misinformation about ideologies like jihad continues to mislead youths into violent paths.

The Impact of War on Educational Systems

War and conflict have devastating effects on educational systems, creating conditions that contribute to the spread of extremist ideologies. Ongoing conflicts create unsafe environments for students and teachers, making it difficult for normal educational activities to take place. Children in conflict-affected countries are 30% less likely to complete primary school than those in non-conflict affected countries, and only about 50% of students in these regions finish their education.

Armed conflict robs millions of children of an education by exposing them to widespread sexual violence, targeted attacks on schools, and other abuses. During conflicts, schools may be destroyed, repurposed for military use, or become targets of violence. In higher education, attacks endanger lives and disrupt education as well as impact research and teaching by triggering fear, flight, and self-censorship. More than 625,000 students can be out of learning when war begins in a region, with half of them potentially attending schools run by international organizations.

The impact extends beyond just physical destruction. Conflict can force students, their parents, and guardians into poverty, which causes students to perform poorly in school and hurts their behavior. Wars displace populations, destroy capital and infrastructure, disrupt schooling, damage the social fabric, endanger civil liberties, and create health and psychological problems that further impede education. A UNESCO study shows that conflict negatively impacts education in 25 countries, leading to less schooling, fewer years of education, and decreased literacy, with disparities worsening for women.

The Cycle of Educational Failure, Misinformation, and Radicalization

The relationship between educational failures, misinformation about jihad, and radicalization creates a dangerous cycle. Although education is not a direct cause of violent conflict, it can influence the incidence of violence based on its interaction with many dimensions of society. A poorly educated and disillusioned population can become vulnerable to extremist ideologies that offer simplistic and seductive solutions to complex problems.

The enemies of Islam, in their hatred and dislike of Islam, often deliberately take verses out of context in an attempt to malign the teachings of Islam. Misconceptions of jihad need to be corrected, as some people have misunderstood its actual meaning. In the Indonesian context, for example, Jihad is often understood as a call to arms, and has ironically become a scapegoat for terrorism cases in various parts of the world. The Qur'an sets the word 'Jihad' differently from the word 'vital' so that the meaning of Jihad can be interpreted multi-dimensionally.

This cycle is perpetuated when internal conflicts reshape the distribution of education in a society through multiple mechanisms. The persistent lack of educational opportunities in conflict zones creates generations who may be more susceptible to extremist messaging. Over 240 million children globally have had their education disrupted due to war and violent conflict, which has long-term implications for societies' ability to resist extremism. Children drop out or are pulled out of school during conflicts, leading to educational gaps that can last for years or even decades.

Breaking the Cycle Through Accurate Education About Jihad

To address the misappropriation of jihad, it is crucial to promote accurate education about its meaning in Islamic texts. The actualization of Jihad in its true essence in the modern era is urgently needed, especially in regions where misconceptions are common. Jihad of wealth (al-Amwaal) and jihad of body or soul (al-Nafs) are profound concepts that aim to improve the social order and create a harmonious balance through the values contained in the Qur'an.

Many modern and contemporary Muslim thinkers insist on a holistic reading of the Qurʾān, assigning great importance to the Qurʾān's restriction of military activity to self-defense in response to external aggression. This reading leads them to discount many classical rulings on warfare by premodern Muslim jurists as historically contingent and inapplicable in the modern period. According to Ibn Taymiyya, jihad is a legitimate reaction to military aggression by unbelievers and not merely due to religious differences. Ibn Taymiyya wrote: "As for the transgressor who does not fight, there are no texts in which Allah commands him to be fought. Rather, the unbelievers are only fought on the condition that they wage war".

Education about these nuanced interpretations can help counter extremist narratives that frame jihad primarily as warfare. The inner, or greater, jihad discussions tend to focus either on personal piety and righteous living or on community service. The idea is that an inward focus on personal adherence to Islam's teachings is played out in the public sphere through the application of an individual's ethics and standards, as expressed in interactions with the family, community, and nation. Both Sunni and Shiʿi perspectives emphasize jihad as an internal struggle for knowledge and betterment of the soul.

Rebuilding Educational Systems in Conflict-Affected Areas

Addressing the root causes of educational problems in conflict-affected areas is essential to breaking the cycle of radicalization. Conflict events reduce students' probability of passing their final exams and decrease their total test scores. When conflict meets the classroom, the impact on educational outcomes can be severe and long-lasting.

Rebuilding educational systems in these regions requires addressing both infrastructure needs and the quality of education provided. This includes not only rebuilding schools but also ensuring that teachers are properly trained, curricula are appropriate, and students have access to accurate information about their religion and its teachings. The role of education in the prevention of radicalization is particularly important, though research has shown that radicalized individuals are not necessarily uneducated in the formal sense.

The hidden crisis of armed conflict and education requires a comprehensive response that addresses both immediate educational needs and long-term societal stability. By improving access to quality education, societies can build resilience against extremist ideologies and promote a more accurate understanding of concepts like jihad. This approach recognizes that education is not just about academic knowledge but also about developing critical thinking skills and promoting social cohesion.

Conclusion: The Path Forward

The misappropriation of jihad by extremist groups like al-Qaeda led to catastrophic events like the 9/11 attacks. However, a thorough examination of Islamic texts reveals that jihad primarily refers to an internal struggle for self-improvement rather than an external battle against perceived enemies. The manipulation of this concept by extremist leaders has been facilitated by educational deficits in conflict-affected regions, where young men are vulnerable to misinformation and radical interpretations.

War and societal collapse severely impact educational systems, creating conditions where extremist ideologies can flourish. Breaking this cycle requires both rebuilding educational infrastructure in conflict zones and ensuring that the education provided includes accurate information about religious concepts like jihad. By promoting a more nuanced understanding of jihad that emphasizes its internal aspects, societies can help counteract the extremist narratives that have contributed to violence and terrorism.

Ultimately, addressing the educational roots of extremism is essential to preventing future attacks motivated by misinterpretations of jihad. This requires a commitment to both peace and education, recognizing that the two are inextricably linked in building resilient societies that can resist the appeal of extremist ideologies. By restoring access to quality education that includes accurate religious teachings, communities can help ensure that concepts like jihad are understood in their full complexity rather than being reduced to calls for violence

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