Russia and Islam
Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Türkiye, Syria, Egypt, and Qatar.
Overview of Russia's Strengthened Ties with Islamic Nations
Russia has pursued closer relationships with various Islamic nations as part of its strategy to pivot away from Western isolation and sanctions. These partnerships range across economic, military, cultural, and geopolitical spheres.
Iran
Russia has significantly strengthened its relationship with Iran, particularly since the escalation of Western sanctions due to the Ukraine conflict. The two nations signed a comprehensive 20-year strategic partnership agreement in 2025. This deal encompasses energy cooperation, including a $40 billion agreement for investments by Russian energy firms into Iranian oil and gas infrastructure, as well as joint military initiatives. Iran has also been supplying arms, including drones and missiles, to Russia for the war in Ukraine, while Russia reciprocates with advanced military technology such as fighter jets and helicopters [61].
The two sides are also undertaking collaborative energy projects, such as pipelines through Azerbaijan, and integrating their national payment systems to bypass U.S. dollar-based transactions [61].
Saudi Arabia
The relationship between Russia and Saudi Arabia revolves largely around energy cooperation. Through the OPEC+ framework, both countries coordinate on oil production to stabilize global markets. Shared interests in slowing the energy transition and maintaining the dominance of fossil fuels have further enhanced this partnership. In recent years, the two nations signed agreements for joint oil and gas exploration and investments [22].
The UAE and Saudi Arabia have also joined BRICS, which Russia facilitated, further solidifying their ties in the geopolitical sphere [120].
Türkiye
Russia and Türkiye maintain complex but robust relations, characterized by cooperation in energy, trade, and regional security. Türkiye acts as a key conduit for Russia to bypass Western sanctions. The countries share a close economic partnership and coordinate in areas such as arms trade and diplomacy over regional conflicts, including Syria [19].
Syria
Russia has been a critical ally of Syria, stepping in militarily since 2015 to support the Assad regime. This intervention helped stabilize the Assad government and allowed Russia to maintain a geopolitical foothold in the Middle East. The partnership also aligns with Iran’s interests in the region, indicating strong trilateral cooperation [19][62].
Egypt
Russia's relationship with Egypt has deepened under President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, centered on energy deals and arms sales. A notable achievement is Russia's involvement in constructing Egypt's nuclear power plant, a project worth $30 billion, reflecting a long-term strategic partnership [19].
Qatar and the UAE
Russia has also expanded trade and diplomatic ties with Gulf countries like Qatar and the UAE. The UAE has become a hub for Russian commerce, enabling access to global markets in the face of Western sanctions. Qatar, on the other hand, provides a diplomatic bridge for resolving regional conflicts. Both nations see Moscow as a partner in global energy markets and multipolar diplomacy [120].
Cultural and Diplomatic Engagement
To strengthen ties with Islamic nations, Russia has also taken cultural initiatives, such as participating in events like the KazanForum. This platform fosters partnerships with Islamic nations in areas like Islamic banking, halal industries, and infrastructure development. Additionally, Russia is an active observer member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), which helps bolster its diplomatic ties throughout the Islamic world [104][111].
Conclusion
Russia's strengthened ties with Islamic nations, including key players like Iran, Saudi Arabia, Türkiye, and Egypt, reflect a pragmatic approach to counter Western isolation. These alignments span energy, military cooperation, and diplomatic initiatives, embedding Russia more deeply into the multipolar global order fostered by its partnerships with Islamic states.
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
Bibliography:
[1] 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Russia. https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/russia/.
[2] 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Russia. https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/russia/.
[3] A Mixed Balance Sheet: Russia’s Uneven Influence in the Maghreb. 3 Oct. 2024, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/10/russias-uneven-influence-maghreb.
[4] A Pivot to the East and the Islamic Dimension of Russia’s Foreign ... 1 Feb. 2024, https://russiancouncil.ru/en/analytics-and-comments/analytics/a-pivot-to-the-east-and-the-islamic-dimension-of-russia-s-foreign-policy/.
[5] A Russian Win in Ukraine Would Be a U.S. Loss in the Middle East. 18 Feb. 2025, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/russian-win-ukraine-would-be-us-loss-middle-east.
[6] Alexander Novak Chairs Russia-OPEC Energy Dialogue Meeting. 22 Nov. 2024, http://government.ru/en/news/53417/.
[7] Autocrats United: How Russia and Iran Defy the U.S.-Led Global Order. 10 Oct. 2024, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/10/russia-iran-oil-gas-ukraine-syria.
[8] Beyond Ukraine: Russia’s Foreign Policy Challenges in 2025 - RUSI. 4 Feb. 2025, https://my.rusi.org/resource/beyond-ukraine-russias-foreign-policy-challenges-in-2025.html.
[9] Briefing by Foreign Ministry Spokeswoman Maria Zakharova ... 6 Feb. 2025, https://mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/1995004/.
[10] Challenges to the Emerging Russia-Iran Partnership in Energy. 22 Jan. 2025, https://www.stimson.org/2025/challenges-to-the-emerging-russia-iran-partnership-in-energy/.
[11] Chapter 9: Russia and the Middle East: Opportunities and Challenges. 6 Oct. 2011, https://www.marshallcenter.org/en/publications/marshall-center-books/russias-global-reach-security-and-statecraft-assessment/chapter-9-russia-and-middle-east-opportunities-and.
[12] Cooperation and the Link between Oil and Gas - OPEC.Org. 4 Nov. 2003, https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/912.htm.
[13] Could a Russia-Iran Gas Partnership Bear Fruit? 28 Nov. 2022, https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2022/11/could-a-russia-iran-gas-partnership-bear-fruit?lang=en.
[14] Defender of the Faiths: How the Russian Government Uses ... 22 Sept. 2021, https://henryjacksonsociety.org/publications/defender-of-the-faiths-religious-diplomacy/.
[15] Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov’s Remarks and Answers to Questions ... 19 Feb. 2025, https://mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/1998634/.
[16] Full Text of Iran-Russia Comprehensive Strategic Partnership ... 17 Jan. 2025, https://irangov.ir/detail/456479.
[17] Greetings on a Regular Meeting of the Russia-Islamic World Strategic ... 11 Dec. 2024, http://www.en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/75823.
[18] How Islam Will Change Russia - PONARS Eurasia. https://www.ponarseurasia.org/how-islam-will-change-russia/.
[19] How Religion and Money Shape Russian Soft Power in Syria. 26 May 2022, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/how-religion-and-money-shape-russian-soft-power-syria.
[20] How Russia Is Losing out in the Middle East - GIS Reports. 11 Dec. 2024, https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/russia-israel-syria-iran-military/.
[21] How the Middle East Became an Arena for Putin’s Power Struggle ... 9 Mar. 2024, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/how-middle-east-became-arena-putins-power-struggle-us.
[22] Impact of the Russo-Ukrainian War on Energy Flows from the Arab ... 11 Feb. 2025, https://mei.edu/publications/impact-russo-ukrainian-war-energy-flows-arab-gulf-states.
[23] Inside the Strategic Partnership Treaty between Iran and Russia. 14 Jan. 2025, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/iran-russia-inside-strategic-partnership-treaty.
[24] Interaction between Russia and the Islamic World Discussed In ... 11 Dec. 2024, https://russia-islworld.ru/en/novosti/interaction-between-russia-and-the-islamic-world-discussed-in-malaysia-2024-12-11-46043/.
[25] “INTERACTION BETWEEN RUSSIA AND THE ISLAMIC WORLD IN ... 11 Dec. 2024, https://www.pmo.gov.my/ms/2024/12/speech-by-prime-minister-at-the-gsv-russia-islamic-world-conference-interaction-between-russia-and-the-islamic-world-in-the-era-of-emerging-multipolarity/.
[26] INTERACTION BETWEEN RUSSIA AND THE ISLAMIC WORLD IN ... 11 Dec. 2024, https://www.pmo.gov.my/2024/12/speech-by-prime-minister-at-the-gsv-russia-islamic-world-conference-interaction-between-russia-and-the-islamic-world-in-the-era-of-emerging-multipolarity-2/.
[27] International Forum “Theological Heritage of Muslims in Russia.” https://bolgar.academy/en/international-forum/.
[28] Iran & Russia: Burgeoning Military Ties. 18 May 2023, https://iranprimer.usip.org/blog/2023/may/18/iran-russia-burgeoning-military-ties.
[29] Iran and Russia Enter A New Level of Military Cooperation. 6 Mar. 2024, https://www.stimson.org/2024/iran-and-russia-enter-a-new-level-of-military-cooperation/.
[30] Iran and Russia: From “Oil-for-Goods Swap” to “Oil-Gas Swap.” 17 Jan. 2023, https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/analytical-articles/item/13743-iran-and-russia-from-%E2%80%9Coil-for-goods-swap%E2%80%9D-to-%E2%80%9Coil-gas-swap%E2%80%9D.html.
[31] Iran and Russia Seek to Reshape Global Hegemony with New ... 4 Nov. 2024, https://jamestown.org/program/iran-and-russia-seek-to-reshape-global-hegemony-with-new-bilateral-agreement/.
[32] IRCICA’s Presentations at the 15th Russia-Islamic World Kazan ... 17 May 2024, https://www.ircica.org/activities/conferences/ircicas-presentations-at-the-15th-russia-islamic-world-kazan-forum-kazan.
[33] İSAM Participated in the International Muslim Forum in Moscow. 23 Sept. 2024, https://www.isam.org.tr/en/news/isam-participated-in-the-international-muslim-forum-in-moscow.
[34] Islam in Russia - Wikipedia. 18 Nov. 2004, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Russia.
[35] Islam in Russia: Challenge or Opportunity? - Global Strategy. 6 Nov. 2016, https://global-strategy.org/islam-russia-challenge-opportunity/.
[36] Islam in Russia: History, Politics and Culture | Wilson Center. 20 Aug. 2024, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/islam-russia-history-politics-and-culture.
[37] Islamic Finance in Russia: A Market Review and the Legal Environment. 4 May 2020, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7198220/.
[38] KazanForum 2024 to Highlight Russia-Islamic World Relations. 13 May 2024, https://www.dailysabah.com/turkiye/kazanforum-2024-to-highlight-russia-islamic-world-relations/news.
[39] KAZANSUMMIT - Wikipedia. 14 Mar. 2013, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KAZANSUMMIT.
[40] Marat Khusnullin Holds a Meeting of the Russia - Islamic World. 26 Dec. 2024, http://government.ru/en/news/53853/.
[41] ---. https://old.kazansummit.ru/en/press-center/news/11957/.
[42] Marat Khusnullin Takes Part in the Russia – Islamic World Strategic ... 16 May 2024, http://government.ru/en/news/51605/.
[43] Middle East Tensions Ease for Energy as Russian Sanctions Hit Metals. 9 May 2024, https://think.ing.com/articles/middle-east-tensions-ease-for-energy-but-russian-sanctions-hit-metals/.
[44] Middle Eastern Influence Is Growing Fast in Russia. 16 Nov. 2023, https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2023/11/middle-eastern-influence-is-growing-fast-in-russia?lang=en.
[45] Ministers from Arab, Muslim Countries Arrive in Russia for Israel ... 21 Nov. 2023, https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2023/11/21/Arab-Islamic-ministerial-committee-lands-in-Russia-for-Gaza-situation-talks-.
[46] New Russia-Iran Treaty Reveals the Limits of Their Partnership. 21 Jan. 2025, https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2025/01/russia-iran-strategic-agreement?lang=en.
[47] News - The Russian Government. 17 Jan. 2025, http://government.ru/en/news/53997/.
[48] ---. 28 Feb. 2024, http://government.ru/en/news/51000/.
[49] Oic Values Cooperation With Russia, Committed To Develop Ties. 17 May 2024, https://www.bernama.com/en/news.php?id=2298942.
[50] Oil Trade and Evolving Russia-Middle East Ties during the War In ... 19 July 2024, https://manaramagazine.org/2024/07/oil-trade-and-evolving-russia-middle-east-ties-during-the-war-in-ukraine/.
[51] OPEC and the Russian Federation Highlight the Importance of Oil ... 22 Nov. 2024, https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/7415.htm.
[52] OPEC plus Countries Saudi Arabia, Russia, Iraq, United Arab ... 5 Dec. 2024, https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/7420.htm.
[53] Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) - The Ministry of Foreign ... 9 Sept. 2024, https://mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/international_organizations/organizacia-islamskogo-sotrudnicestva-ois/.
[54] Partners in Defiance: Russia and Iran Move Closer to Alliance. 4 Nov. 2024, https://www.grc.net/single-commentary/200.
[55] [PDF] Analysis of Russia’s Status as an Observer in the Organisation Of ... https://www.scitepress.org/Papers/2018/99302/99302.pdf.
[56] [PDF] Russia and Islam - CSS/ETH Zürich. https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/pdfs/RAD-44-6-9.pdf.
[57] [PDF] Russia at War and the Islamic World. https://www.defense.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/dgris/Etude%20de%20fond%20n%C2%B02%20-%20Russia%20at%20war%20and%20the%20Islamic%20world.pdf.
[58] [PDF] Russia at War and the Islamic World - Ifri. https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/migrated_files/documents/atoms/files/rnv127_laruelle_ukraine_muslims.pdf.
[59] [PDF] Russia, Religion and Soft Power - CHACR. https://chacr.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/CHACR_Briefing_Russia_Religion_June_2020.pdf.
[60] [PDF] Russia’s Islam : Balancing Securitization and Integration - Ifri. 1 Dec. 2021, https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/migrated_files/documents/atoms/files/laruelle_russia_islam_2021.pdf.
[61] [PDF] Russia’s Islamic Diplom - Central Asia Program. https://www.centralasiaprogram.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/CAP-paper-220-Russia-Islamic-Diplomacy.pdf.
[62] [PDF] Russia’s Soft Power Projection in the Middle East. https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/military-review/Archives/English/ND-21/Borschevskaya-Russia-Soft-Power.pdf.
[63] [PDF] The Religious Diplomacy of the Russian Federation - Ifri. https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/migrated_files/documents/atoms/files/ifrirnr12curanovicreligiousdiplomacyjune2012.pdf.
[64] [PDF] The Tactical Side of Russia’s Arms Sales to the Middle East. https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/media/1567.
[65] Pezeshkian Highlights Significance of Iran-Russia Treaty On ... 19 Feb. 2025, https://irangov.ir/detail/458689.
[66] Q&A: How Will New US Sanctions Affect Russia’s Energy Sector? 16 Jan. 2025, https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/qa-how-will-new-us-sanctions-affect-russias-energy-sector/.
[67] Russia and China in the Middle East: The Neglected Religious ... 17 May 2021, https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/posts/russia-and-china-in-the-middle-east-the-neglected-religious-dimension.
[68] Russia and Iran Deepen Trade, Military Ties in 20-Year ’strategic ... 17 Jan. 2025, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20250117-russia-and-iran-to-sign-partnership-pact.
[69] Russia And Iran Finalize 20-Year Deal That Will Change The Middle ... 22 Jan. 2024, https://oilprice.com/Energy/Energy-General/Russia-And-Iran-Finalize-20-Year-Deal-That-Will-Change-The-Middle-East-Forever.html.
[70] Russia and Iran Have a Troubled History despite Their Current Alliance. 17 Jan. 2025, https://apnews.com/article/russia-iran-putin-pezeshkian-treaty-af3d3112f01749c45b9c3f3272702e11.
[71] Russia and Iran’s Defense Pact Is a Challenge Trump Must Confront. 26 Jan. 2025, https://thehill.com/opinion/international/5106123-russia-and-irans-defense-pact-is-a-challenge-trump-must-confront/.
[72] Russia and Iran’s Gas Ambitions: Cooperation or Competition? 22 Nov. 2024, https://gulfif.org/russia-and-irans-gas-ambitions-cooperation-or-competition/.
[73] Russia and Iran’s New Comprehensive Partnership Agreement. 21 Aug. 2024, https://gulfif.org/russia-and-irans-new-comprehensive-partnership-agreement-a-new-chapter-in-bilateral-relations/.
[74] Russia and OIC Have Similar or Same Positions on Many Political ... 13 Feb. 2020, https://tass.com/politics/1120019.
[75] Russia and OIC Hold Discussions. 24 Oct. 2022, https://www.oic-oci.org/topic/?t_id=37751&t_ref=25986&lan=en.
[76] Russia and Saudi Arabia’s Oil Partnership Shows Strain. 7 June 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/07/business/energy-environment/saudi-arabia-russia-oil-opec-plus.html.
[77] Russia and the Middle East - Wikipedia. 28 Feb. 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_and_the_Middle_East.
[78] Russia Claims to Be Fully Compliant with OPEC+ Output Quota. 12 Feb. 2025, https://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Russia-Claims-to-Be-Fully-Compliant-with-OPEC-Output-Quota.html.
[79] Russia Embraces Islamic Finance - GLI - Global Legal Insights. 23 Sept. 2024, https://www.globallegalinsights.com/news/russia-embraces-islamic-finance/.
[80] Russia Exceeded OPEC+ Oil Output Quota in June, Pledges to Reach ... 24 July 2024, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/russia-exceeded-opec-oil-output-quota-june-pledges-reach-target-july-2024-07-24/.
[81] Russia Increases Arms Trade with UN-Embargoed Nations to Feed ... 18 Nov. 2024, https://www.voanews.com/a/russia-increases-arms-trade-with-un-embargoed-nations-to-feed-ukraine-war/7868778.html.
[82] Russia Increases Ties with Iran’s Axis of Resistance - Jamestown. 26 Nov. 2024, https://jamestown.org/program/russias-increases-ties-with-irans-axis-of-resistance/.
[83] Russia Is Set to Launch Islamic Banking: All You Need to Know. 30 Aug. 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/30/russia-is-set-to-launch-islamic-banking-all-you-need-to-know.
[84] Russia, Islam and the Muslim World - Crescent International. https://crescent.icit-digital.org/articles/russia-islam-and-the-muslim-world.
[85] Russia Marks 15 Years of Its Membership in OIC - Modern Diplomacy. 2 Aug. 2020, https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2020/08/02/russia-marks-15-years-of-its-membership-in-oic/.
[86] Russia Offers Equal Partnerships with the Islamic World. https://kazanforum.ru/en/press-center/news/11942/.
[87] Russia Open to Extensive Business Cooperation with Muslim Countries. https://tass.com/society/1617463.
[88] Russia Profits from Arms Exports to Saudi Arabia despite Sanctions ... 24 Jan. 2025, https://www.yahoo.com/news/investigation-russia-profits-arms-exports-125742369.html.
[89] Russia Signs Comprehensive Strategic Partnership with Iran. 17 Jan. 2025, https://breakingdefense.com/2025/01/russia-signs-comprehensive-strategic-partnership-with-iran/.
[90] Russia Using Media Organizations To Garner Support From “Islamic ... 1 Mar. 2023, https://fmso.tradoc.army.mil/2023/russia-using-media-organizations-to-garner-support-from-islamic-countries/.
[91] Russia Welcomes Efforts of Joint Arab-Islamic Summit on Gaza ... 14 Nov. 2024, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/russia-welcomes-efforts-of-joint-arab-islamic-summit-on-gaza-lebanon/3394200.
[92] Russia-Iran: Strategic Partners or Competitors? - Baker Institute. 27 Apr. 2016, https://www.bakerinstitute.org/research/russia-iran-strategic-partners-or-competitors.
[93] Russia-Islamic World Strategic Vision Group Meeting. https://kazanforum.ru/en/press-center/analytics-2024/11554/.
[94] Russian Arms and Technology Transfers to Iran:Policy Challenges ... 1 Mar. 2001, https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2001-03/iran-nuclear-briefs/russian-arms-and-technology-transfers-iranpolicy-challenges-united.
[95] Russian Arms Exports to the Middle East and North Africa. 19 July 2024, https://manaramagazine.org/2024/07/russian-arms-exports-to-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/.
[96] Russian Soft Power in the Middle East. 26 July 2019, https://besacenter.org/russian-soft-power-middle-east/.
[97] Russian-Iranian Cooperation and Threats to U.S. Interests. 17 Apr. 2024, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/russian-iranian-cooperation-and-threats-us-interests.
[98] Russia’s Arms Exports to the MENA Region: Trends and Drivers. 1 Apr. 2019, https://www.iemed.org/publication/russias-arms-exports-to-the-mena-region-trends-and-drivers/.
[99] Russia’s Balancing Act in the Levant. 19 Sept. 2024, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/09/russia-middle-east-levant.
[100] Russia’s Conservative Religious Consensus: Forging an Illiberal Global ... 25 Sept. 2024, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09637494.2024.2388998.
[101] Russia’s Enduring Presence in the Middle East. 1 Nov. 2024, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/11/russias-middle-east-diplomacy-relationship.
[102] ---. 1 Nov. 2024, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/11/russias-middle-east-diplomacy-relationship?lang=en¢er=europe.
[103] Russia’s Great Energy Game in the Middle East. 12 Nov. 2024, https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/11/russias-great-energy-game-in-the-middle-east.
[104] Russia’s Greater Middle East Policy: Securing Economic Interests ... http://www.ifri.org/en/papers/russias-greater-middle-east-policy-securing-economic-interests-courting-islam.
[105] Russia’s Growing Ties With Afghanistan Are More Symbolism Than ... 19 Sept. 2023, https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2023/09/russias-growing-ties-with-afghanistan-are-more-symbolism-than-substance?lang=en.
[106] Russia’s Middle East Moves and US Options. 8 Mar. 2023, https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/russias-middle-east-moves-and-us-options/.
[107] Russia’s Middle East Resurgence: Here to Stay? - GIS Reports. 28 Feb. 2024, https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/russias-middle-east-resurgence-here-to-stay/.
[108] Russia’s Putin Signals OPEC+ Cuts Are Here to Stay - Reuters. 11 Oct. 2023, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/russias-putin-says-opec-coordination-continue-2023-10-11/.
[109] Russia’s Soft Power in the Middle East - Manara Magazine. 12 Oct. 2021, https://manaramagazine.org/2021/10/russias-soft-power-in-the-middle-east/.
[110] Russia’s Soft Power Projection in the Middle East. 3 July 2008, https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Journals/Military-Review/English-Edition-Archives/November-December-2021/Borschevskaya-Russia-Soft-Power/.
[111] ---. 4 Dec. 2020, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/russias-soft-power-projection-middle-east.
[112] Russia’s Trade With Islamic Countries Up 30% - Russia’s Pivot to Asia. 20 May 2024, https://russiaspivottoasia.com/russias-trade-with-islamic-countries-up-30/.
[113] Russia’s War in Ukraine Has Brought Iran and Belarus Closer ... 17 Feb. 2025, https://warontherocks.com/2025/02/russias-war-in-ukraine-has-brought-iran-and-belarus-closer-together/.
[114] Sanctions to Degrade Russia’s Energy Sector - State Department. 10 Jan. 2025, https://2021-2025.state.gov/office-of-the-spokesperson/releases/2025/01/sanctions-to-degrade-russias-energy-sector/.
[115] Saudis Sign Military Cooperation Agreement With Russia - RFE/RL. 24 Aug. 2021, https://www.rferl.org/a/saudi-russia-arms-weapons-/31425164.html.
[116] Secretary-General Receives Russia’s New Permanent Observer. 2 Jan. 2024, https://www.oic-oci.org/topic/?t_id=40164&t_ref=26841&lan=en.
[117] Syria Could Allow Russia to Keep Its Bases, New Defense Minister Says. 6 Feb. 2025, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2025/02/06/syria-defense-minister-russia-bases/.
[118] Tehran, Moscow Emphasize Expanding Oil Co-Op through Joint Projects. 18 Feb. 2025, https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/509908/Iran-Russia-emphasize-expanding-oil-cooperation-through-joint.
[119] The Geopolitics of Faith: Religious Soft Power in Russian and U.S. ... 6 June 2019, https://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/posts/the-geopolitics-of-faith-religious-soft-power-in-russian-and-u-s-foreign-policy.
[120] The GSV “Russia-Islamic World” Met the Ambassadors of the OIC ... 6 Mar. 2024, https://russia-islworld.ru/en/novosti/the-gsv-russia-islamic-world-meet-the-ambassadors-of-the-oic-member-states-in-moscow-2024-03-06-39992/.
[121] The KazanForum 2024: Russia-Islamic World Cooperation And ... 1 July 2024, https://www.iglobenews.org/kazanforum-2024/.
[122] The Middle East and the Ukraine War: Between Fear and Opportunity. 1 May 2024, https://inss.ndu.edu/Media/News/Article/3794932/the-middle-east-and-the-ukraine-war-between-fear-and-opportunity/.
[123] The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. https://mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/international_organizations/organizacia-islamskogo-sotrudnicestva-ois/1436312/.
[124] The New Deal for Oil Markets: Implications for Russia’s Short-Term ... 13 Apr. 2020, https://www.oxfordenergy.org/publications/the-new-deal-for-oil-markets-implications-for-russias-short-term-tactics-and-long-term-strategy/.
[125] The OPEC+ Phenomenon of Saudi-Russian Cooperation And ... 18 Oct. 2022, https://www.bakerinstitute.org/research/opec-phenomenon-saudi-russian-cooperation-and-implications-us-saudi-relations.
[126] The OPEC+ Puzzle: Why Russian-Saudi Cooperation Starts. 19 Jan. 2023, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/opec-puzzle-why-russian-saudi-cooperation-starts-and-stops-oil-prices.
[127] The Religious Dimension of Russia’s “Turn to the East” -. 31 Jan. 2024, https://www.laciviltacattolica.com/the-religious-dimension-of-russias-turn-to-the-east/.
[128] The Roots of Increasing Military Cooperation Between Iran and Russia. 16 Oct. 2024, https://www.stimson.org/2024/the-roots-of-increasing-military-cooperation-between-iran-and-russia/.
[129] The XV International Economic Forum “Russia – Islamic World. https://dspkazan.com/en/projects/rossiya-islamskij-mir-kazanforum2024/.
[130] The XVI International Economic Forum "Russia — Islamic World. 15 May 2023, https://kazanforum.ru/en/.
[131] Ties between Russia, Muslim Countries Accelerating, Says Tatarstan ... 20 May 2023, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/ties-between-russia-muslim-countries-accelerating-says-tatarstan-leader/2901833.
[132] Treaty on the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership between The ... 17 Jan. 2025, https://www.iranwatch.org/library/governments/iran/islamic-republic-news-agency-irna/treaty-comprehensive-strategic-partnership-between-islamic-republic-iran-russian-federation.
[133] Turning Away from the West, Russia Seeks to Strengthen Economic ... 16 May 2023, https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230516-turning-away-from-the-west-russia-seeks-to-strengthen-economic-ties-with-the-muslim-world.
[134] Ukraine – Russia Conflict and the Muslim World - SpecialEurasia. 19 May 2023, https://www.specialeurasia.com/2023/05/19/ukraine-russia-arab-muslim-world/.
[135] What Assad’s Fall Means for Russia in the Middle East. 10 Dec. 2024, https://www.cfr.org/expert-brief/what-assads-fall-means-russia-middle-east.
[136] What Can Russia Bring to Iran’s Natural Gas Sector? | Amwaj.Media. 22 Feb. 2025, https://amwaj.media/article/what-can-russia-bring-to-iran-s-natural-gas-sector.
[137] What Iranian-Saudi Normalization Means for Russia | Amwaj.Media. 16 June 2023, https://amwaj.media/article/what-iranian-saudi-normalization-means-for-russia.
[138] What Is Islamic Soft Power? : R/PoliticalDiscussion - Reddit. 9 Jan. 2023, https://www.reddit.com/r/PoliticalDiscussion/comments/107fua5/what_is_islamic_soft_power/.
[139] What Is OPEC+ and How Is It Different from OPEC? - U.S. Energy ... 25 July 2024, https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=61102.
[140] What the Russia-Iran Arms Deals Mean for the Middle East. 19 Apr. 2023, https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/what-russia-iran-arms-deals-mean-middle-east.
[141] Why Do so Many Muslim Nations Embrace Russia or Cheer It ... - Quora. 14 July 2020, https://www.quora.com/Why-do-so-many-Muslim-nations-embrace-Russia-or-cheer-it-on-against-the-USA-when-Russia-has-no-interests-in-Islam-or-Muslim-people-and-also-serves-as-a-destabilizing-force-at-times-in-the-region.
[142] Why Does Russia Support Islamic Countries against Israel ... - Quora. 6 Sept. 2018, https://www.quora.com/Why-does-Russia-support-Islamic-countries-against-Israel-when-it-is-mainly-a-Christian-country.
[143] Why Is Iran Importing Natural Gas from Russia? - Stimson Center. 5 Sept. 2024, https://www.stimson.org/2024/why-is-iran-importing-natural-gas-from-russia/.
[144] Would an End to the Ukraine War Be Bad News for Saudi Arabia And ... 21 Feb. 2025, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/would-end-ukraine-war-be-bad-news-saudi-arabia-and-oil-prices.