The Comprehensive Guide to Christianity

Origins and Historical Roots of Christianity

Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish movement centered around Jesus Christ, who was born in Bethlehem, Israel. The religion has its roots in Judaism, with Jesus and all his apostles being Jewish, making early Christianity essentially a movement within Judaism. The symbolic birth of the Christian church is often marked on the day of Pentecost, which celebrates the gift of the Holy Spirit to the disciples and the beginning of the church's mission. According to Acts 2, this event occurred 50 days after the Ascension of Jesus. Christianity officially emerged after the death of Jesus, developing as a Judaic sect with Hellenistic influence in the Roman province of Judaea.

The effects of Jesus's life, the response to his teachings, the experience of his death, and belief in his resurrection formed the origins of the Christian community. When Peter is represented in the New Testament as confessing that Jesus is "the Christ, the Son of the living God," he speaks for Christianity throughout the ages. It is in response to this confession that Jesus is described as announcing the foundation of the Christian church with the words, "You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it".

Initially, Christianity was a small, unorganized sect that promised personal salvation after death. The members of the early Christian church believed their mission to be nearer its end than its beginning, expecting the imminent Second Coming of Christ. However, as time passed without this event occurring, longer perspectives of a "time of the church" opened up. Christians faced the challenges of living among a pagan majority, the missionary challenge proved greater than anticipated, and with it came the task of building a Christian social life.

The Spread of Early Christianity

Christianity spread with remarkable speed throughout the Roman Empire. The movement progressed from Jerusalem to Damascus and Antioch, followed by Paul's missions to Asia Minor, then to Macedonia and Greece, and eventually to Rome. Other early evidence tells of Christians in Alexandria and other regions. By the end of the 2nd century, there were well-established churches in Gaul (Lyon, Vienne, and perhaps Marseille) and Latin Africa (Carthage), with possible beginnings in Britain, Spain, and Roman Germany.

To the east, Edessa soon became the center of Syriac Christianity, which spread to Mesopotamia, the borders of Persia, and possibly India. Armenia officially adopted Christianity as its state religion at the beginning of the 4th century, making it the first officially Christian state, though Christianity had likely penetrated the country earlier. Christianity demonstrated its appeal to people of different cultures and environments, establishing its capacity to be catholic (universal).

The spread of Christianity faced significant opposition. Christians often stood aloof from their neighbors due to their moral standards and fear of contamination by the idolatry prevalent in social life. The Roman state doubted their loyalty and increasingly believed the growth of the Christian church was incompatible with the unity, safety, and prosperity of the empire. Serious action against the church corporately began when Septimius Severus forbade conversion under pain of death in 202 AD.

Christianity's Adoption by the Roman Empire

The course of Christianity changed dramatically with Emperor Constantine the Great (306-337 AD), who began Christianity's transition to becoming the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Constantine was exposed to Christianity in his youth, and throughout his life, his support for the religion grew, culminating in baptism on his deathbed. During his reign, state-sanctioned persecution of Christians ended with the Edict of Toleration in 311 and the Edict of Milan in 313, granting Christians the right to openly observe their worship.

In 312 AD, before a crucial battle, Constantine reportedly received a vision of a flaming cross with the words "In hoc signo vinces" ("By this sign conquer"), after which he defeated his rival Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge. Following this victory, the Edict of Milan in 313 AD officially established Christianity as a legal religion within the Roman Empire. Constantine then called the first ecumenical council at Nicaea in 325 AD, where the Arian heresy (which declared Christ was a created being) was refuted and the Nicene Creed was drawn up, declaring Christ to be "Begotten, not made; of one essence with the Father".

However, it was under Emperor Theodosius I that Christianity became the official state religion of the Roman Empire. In the year before the First Council of Constantinople in 381, Theodosius I, Emperor of the East, along with Gratian and Valentinian II, issued the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD. This edict recognized the catholic orthodoxy of Nicene Christians as the Roman Empire's state religion. According to this edict, all subjects of the empire were required to profess the faith as taught by Pope Damasus I of Rome and Peter of Alexandria. In 391 AD, Theodosius closed all "pagan" (non-Christian and non-Jewish) temples and formally forbade pagan worship.

The conversion of Constantine marked a significant turning point for Christianity. After nearly three centuries during which the martyrs had been the seed of the church, the accession of a Christian emperor changed the entire situation. By 391 AD, Christianity had been transformed from a persecuted faith to the official religion of the Roman Empire. Within a decade after receiving legal status, Christians could openly practice their religion without fear of persecution.

The Organization of the Early Church

By the time Christianity became the state religion of the empire, it had developed considerably in its organization. This development was partly in response to external pressures and partly to express its nature as a historically continuous society with corporate unity, a ministry, and distinct worship practices and sacraments. As early as the first decades of the 2nd century, there is evidence of congregations being governed by a single bishop assisted by presbyters and deacons.

The bishop served as the chief minister in worship, teaching, and pastoral care, as well as supervising all administration. The presbyters collectively formed his council, while the deacons became specially associated with the bishop in liturgical duties and property administration, including assistance to the needy. The origins of this threefold ministry have been debated, but it is certain that typical Christian groups, at least in cities, possessed a recognized ministry from their beginnings.

The first local unit of organization was the congregation, but the church soon made use of the administrative divisions of the Roman Empire. Each bishop became responsible for the church in a recognized civitas (an urban center with its surrounding territory), which formed a diocese, the fundamental unit of ecclesiastical geography. By the late 2nd century, bishops began grouping themselves according to civil provinces, and by the 3rd century, there was clear evidence of ecclesiastical provinces, usually coinciding with civil provinces.

The Compilation of the Bible

The Bible is a collection of sixty-six books that were gathered together through a historical process. The term "canon" is used to describe the books considered divinely inspired and belonging in the Bible. The Bible's canon was determined through a process conducted first by Jewish rabbis and scholars for the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and later by early Christians for the New Testament. Ultimately, it was God who decided which books belonged in the biblical canon, with a book belonging from the moment God inspired its writing.

For the Old Testament, Hebrew believers recognized God's messengers and accepted their writings as inspired. By 250 AD, there was near universal agreement on the canon of Hebrew Scripture, with only the Apocrypha remaining a subject of debate. In contrast, the New Testament canon developed through a more complex process of recognition and collection beginning in the first centuries of the Christian church.

Early on, some New Testament books were being recognized as authoritative. Paul considered Luke's writings to be as authoritative as the Old Testament, and Peter recognized Paul's writings as Scripture. Some of the New Testament books were circulated among the churches, with early church fathers like Clement of Rome mentioning at least eight New Testament books by 95 AD, Polycarp acknowledging 15 books by 108 AD, and others gradually recognizing more books.

The first formal "canon" was the Muratorian Canon, compiled in 170 AD, which included all New Testament books except Hebrews, James, 1 and 2 Peter, and 3 John. Later church councils further refined the canon. In 363 AD, the Council of Laodicea stated that only the Old Testament and 26 books of the New Testament (everything except Revelation) were canonical. The Council of Hippo (393 AD) and the Council of Carthage (397 AD) affirmed the same 27 books that comprise the current New Testament.

The first reference to the canon of Scripture in Christian history was recorded in 367 AD in a letter by Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria. The canon of the Catholic Church was affirmed by the Council of Rome (382 AD), the Synod of Hippo (393 AD), the Councils of Carthage (397 and 419 AD), the Council of Florence (1431-1449 AD), and finally, as an article of faith, by the Council of Trent (1545-1563 AD). These councils established the Catholic biblical canon consisting of 46 books in the Old Testament and 27 books in the New Testament for a total of 73 books.

Major Christian Holidays and Festivals

Christian celebrations and festivals center around significant events in the life of Jesus Christ. These holy days form the liturgical calendar that guides Christians through the year, commemorating key moments in the faith's history and teachings. The primary Christian holidays that most denominations celebrate include Advent, Christmas, Epiphany, Lent, Holy Week (including Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday, and Good Friday), Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost.

Advent is the four-week season of preparation for the birth of Christ and for the Second Coming. It typically begins four Sundays before Christmas, and in some churches, an Advent wreath is used as a focus for prayer during this season. Christmas, one of the most profound holidays for Christians, celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ in Bethlehem. While Easter is theologically more significant, Christmas enjoys immense social and cultural importance in modern society. Catholics, Protestants, and some Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on December 25, while some Orthodox Christians celebrate it on January 6.

Epiphany occurs twelve days after Christmas and marks the visit of the Magi (three wise men) to Jesus shortly after his birth and their subsequent spreading of the news of his birth throughout the world. For Catholics and Protestants, this is celebrated on January 6, also known as Three Kings' Day, while Orthodox Christians celebrate the baptism of Jesus (also known as Theophany) on either January 6 or January 19. For some Christians, Epiphany is the primary gift-giving occasion rather than Christmas Day.

Lent is the 40-day period of penitential preparation for Easter. This season commemorates the 40 days Jesus spent in the desert fasting and praying, making it a time for personal reflection and improvement through prayer, fasting, and study. The forty days' fast called Lent was instituted at the very commencement of Christianity. Our Lord Himself sanctioned it by fasting forty days and forty nights in the desert. While Jesus did not impose it as an express commandment, He showed by His own example that fasting was to be practiced by Christians.

Holy Week refers to the final week of Lent, beginning with Palm Sunday and culminating with Easter Sunday. Palm Sunday commemorates Jesus's triumphal entry into Jerusalem the week before he was crucified, when people spread palm branches on the ground before him. Maundy Thursday commemorates the Last Supper of Jesus with his disciples and often includes ritual foot-washing in services. Good Friday commemorates the crucifixion and death of Jesus Christ, a somber day of reflection on his sacrifice.

Easter is the most important holiday within Christianity, celebrating the resurrection of Jesus following his death by crucifixion. It is a movable feast celebrated by Catholics and Protestants on the Sunday after the full moon that occurs on or after March 21, while Orthodox Christians celebrate it on the Sunday after the full moon that occurs on or after April 3. Easter is often celebrated with special sunrise services, festive music, and family gatherings.

Ascension Day, occurring 40 days after Easter, commemorates Jesus's ascension into Heaven in the presence of His disciples. Pentecost, celebrated 50 days after Easter, marks the gift of the Holy Spirit to Jesus's followers in the form of a mighty wind and tongues of fire. This feast is sometimes called the "birthday of the Church" as it celebrates the empowerment of the apostles to spread Jesus's teachings.

In addition to these major festivals, many Christian denominations observe other special days, such as All Saints' Day on November 1, which honors saints known and unknown. Many churches, especially Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican, also celebrate Saints' Days throughout the year, recognizing people who have lived particularly holy lives.

The Great Schism: Division into Two Main Branches

The first major schism in Christianity resulted in the division between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. This split, known as the Great Schism or the East-West Schism, officially occurred in 1054 AD. While 1054 is the conventional date, various scholars have proposed different dates for the Great Schism, including 1009, 1204, 1484, and even 1756.

The Great Schism was not a sudden event but the culmination of centuries of growing theological, political, and cultural differences between the Christian communities of the Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) parts of the Roman Empire. The seeds of division were planted in the early centuries of Christianity. The first serious theological disagreements that directly caused schisms in the church occurred after the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325 and again at the Council of Constantinople in 381.

Before the Great Schism, the Church had grown into a powerful organization after the Roman Empire recognized and strengthened it. There was a "five-headed church" consisting of five patriarchates: Rome in the West, and Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem in the East. The Roman high priest called himself the "Pope," which comes from the Greek word "papas," meaning father.

Several factors contributed to the growing divide between East and West:

Cultural and Linguistic Differences: One of the main issues that contributed to the split was the use of Latin in the Western (Roman) Church, while Greek was used in the Eastern Church. These linguistic differences led to misunderstandings and a sense of separation between the two branches.

Political Conflicts: The rise of the Byzantine Empire in the East led to the establishment of the Orthodox Church, which began to operate independently of Roman authority. The rivalry between Rome and Constantinople, exacerbated by competing ecclesiastical and political ambitions, led to further tensions.

Theological Disputes: The two sides had differing beliefs about the authority of the pope. The Western Church viewed the pope as having universal jurisdiction, while the Eastern Church believed in a more collegial model of church leadership with patriarchs sharing authority. Another significant theological disagreement was the Filioque controversy regarding the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Western Church added the phrase "and from the Son" (Filioque) to the Nicene Creed, indicating that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son. The Eastern Church rejected this addition as unauthorized and theologically incorrect.

Liturgical Differences: Eastern and Western churches developed different liturgical practices, including the use of leavened bread in the Eastern Church versus unleavened bread in the Western Church for the Eucharist.

The formal split occurred in Constantinople on July 16, 1054. Cardinal Humbert, representing Pope Leo IX, laid a papal bull on the altar of the Hagia Sophia, excommunicating Patriarch Michael Cerularius. In response, the patriarch excommunicated the cardinal and his delegation. After the Byzantines refused to take the bull, one of the deacons from the Hagia Sophia threw it out of the church. This event marked the official split between the Eastern and Western churches.

Following the schism, the Western branch, led by the Pope in Rome, became the Roman Catholic Church, while the Eastern branch, led by the Patriarch of Constantinople, became the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Great Schism has never been fully healed. Although a formal removal of mutual anathemas was carried out in 1965 between Patriarch Athenagoras of Constantinople and Pope Paul VI, unity between Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism has not been achieved.

Lasting Impact of the Great Schism

The Great Schism had profound and lasting effects on Christianity. The two branches developed distinct traditions, theologies, and ecclesiastical structures. The Eastern Orthodox Church rejected the doctrine of Papal authority set forth in the Vatican Council of 1870 and maintained the original position of collegiality of bishops. The Orthodox Church has synods where the highest authorities in each Church community are brought together, but unlike the Catholic Church, no central individual has the absolute and infallible last word on church doctrine.

The Catholic Church, meanwhile, developed doctrines such as papal infallibility when the Pope speaks officially "from the chair of Peter" on matters of faith and morals. Catholics hold that the legitimacy and authority of all Christian bishops derive from their union with the Roman see and its bishop, the Supreme Pontiff, the unique Successor of Peter and Vicar of Christ on earth.

These differences in ecclesiastical authority continue to be a major point of division between the two churches. The Orthodox insist that papal primacy should be a "primacy of honor," not a "primacy of authority," whereas Catholics see the pontiff's role as necessary for the exercise of power and authority.

The Great Schism divided Christianity into two major branches that continue to exist today. Despite efforts at reconciliation, including the joint declaration by Pope Paul VI and Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras I in 1965 nullifying the anathemas of 1054, the full communion between the Churches has not been restored. The absence of full communion is even explicitly mentioned when the Code of Canon Law gives Catholic ministers permission to administer sacraments to members of Eastern churches under certain conditions.

Conclusion

Christianity's journey from a small Jewish sect to one of the world's largest religions is marked by both unity and division. From its origins in the 1st century with Jesus Christ and his apostles, through its adoption by the Roman Empire under Constantine and Theodosius, to the formal division into Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic branches in 1054, Christianity has evolved through complex historical processes.

The compilation of the Bible through various councils, the establishment of major holidays celebrating significant events in Jesus's life, and the theological and ecclesiastical developments have all contributed to shaping the religion as we know it today. While Christianity faces many internal divisions, it continues to provide spiritual guidance and community to billions of followers worldwide, united by core beliefs in Jesus Christ's life, death, and resurrection, even as they differ in their expressions and understanding of these fundamental truths.